A legal document filed by a non-party to a court case who has a strong interest in the outcome. "Amicus curiae" means "friend of the court" in Latin. These briefs provide additional perspectives and information that the court may find useful in reaching a decision.

A legislative act that authorizes the government to spend money for a specific purpose. Appropriations bills originate in the House and must pass both chambers before the funds can be disbursed. They are distinct from authorization bills, which establish programs but do not fund them.

The practice of creating the appearance of widespread grassroots support for a policy or candidate when the effort is actually orchestrated and funded by a hidden sponsor. The name is a play on AstroTurf, the artificial grass. Astroturfing campaigns often use fake social media accounts, paid petitions, or manufactured letter-writing campaigns.

A law that establishes or continues a federal program and sets its policies, but does not provide funding. Authorization bills define what a program can do and how much it is allowed to spend. Actual money must be provided separately through the appropriations process.

A proposed law introduced in either chamber of Congress for consideration. Bills are designated H.R. in the House and S. in the Senate, followed by a number. A bill must pass both chambers in identical form and be signed by the President to become law.

The practice of collecting multiple individual campaign contributions and presenting them together to a candidate, amplifying the bundler's influence. Bundlers are often lobbyists, executives, or well-connected fundraisers. While individual contributions are capped, there is no limit on how much one person can bundle.

The group of senior officials who head the executive departments and advise the President. Cabinet members are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Cabinet includes the Vice President and heads of 15 executive departments, plus other officials granted Cabinet-level rank.

A meeting of party members to select candidates or decide policy positions through discussion and voting. Unlike primaries, caucuses require in-person attendance and can last several hours. Iowa's caucuses were historically the first major event of the presidential nominating process.

A writ issued by the Supreme Court agreeing to review a lower court's decision. The Court receives thousands of petitions each year but grants certiorari ("cert") in fewer than 100 cases. Four of the nine justices must agree to hear a case.

A landmark 2010 Supreme Court decision (Citizens United v. FEC) that ruled the government cannot restrict independent political spending by corporations, labor unions, or other associations. The ruling held that such restrictions violate the First Amendment right to free speech. It fundamentally reshaped the campaign finance landscape.

A Senate procedure used to end debate on a measure and bring it to a vote. Invoking cloture requires a supermajority of 60 senators. It is the primary mechanism for overcoming a filibuster.

A presidential action that reduces a person's federal sentence without erasing the conviction. Unlike a pardon, a commutation does not restore civil rights or imply innocence. It is typically granted on humanitarian grounds or when a sentence is deemed excessive.

A legislative measure passed by both the House and Senate that does not have the force of law and does not require the President's signature. Concurrent resolutions are often used for setting the congressional budget or expressing the shared opinion of both chambers.

A temporary joint committee formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill. Members from both chambers negotiate a compromise text. The resulting conference report must be approved by both chambers before going to the President.

A temporary funding measure that keeps the government running when Congress has not completed regular appropriations bills by the start of a fiscal year. It typically maintains spending at existing levels for a set period. Failure to pass one can result in a government shutdown.

Political spending by nonprofit organizations that are not required to disclose their donors. Dark money flows primarily through 501(c)(4) social welfare organizations and 501(c)(6) trade associations. It has grown significantly since Citizens United, making it harder to trace who funds political ads.

A provision in legislation that directs federal funds to a specific project, program, or locality, often at the request of a member of Congress. Earmarks bypass the competitive allocation process. They were banned in 2011 but partially returned as "community project funding" in 2021.

The system by which the President and Vice President are elected, consisting of 538 electors allocated among the states. A candidate needs 270 electoral votes to win. Each state gets electors equal to its total congressional delegation, and nearly all states award them on a winner-take-all basis.

The official copy of a bill as passed by one chamber of Congress, including all amendments adopted during floor action. The engrossed bill is the version transmitted to the other chamber for consideration. It represents the final text approved by one side.

The final official copy of a bill that has passed both the House and Senate in identical form. It is printed on parchment and signed by the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate before being sent to the President for signature.

A directive issued by the President that manages operations of the federal government. Executive orders have the force of law but can be reversed by subsequent presidents or overturned by Congress or the courts. They are published in the Federal Register and numbered sequentially.

The Foreign Agents Registration Act, a federal law requiring individuals who lobby on behalf of foreign governments, political parties, or entities to register with the Department of Justice. FARA was enacted in 1938 to counter Nazi propaganda. It has gained renewed prominence due to high-profile prosecutions in recent years.

The Federal Election Commission, an independent agency that enforces federal campaign finance laws. The FEC has six commissioners, and no more than three may belong to the same party, which often leads to deadlocked votes. It oversees disclosure requirements, contribution limits, and public funding of presidential elections.

The official daily journal of the United States government, where executive orders, proposed rules, and public notices are published. It serves as the public's primary source for tracking government regulatory actions. All significant federal regulations must be published here before taking effect.

A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill by extending debate indefinitely. Because Senate rules place no limit on debate time, a senator can speak for as long as they wish. It can only be stopped by a cloture vote requiring 60 senators.

A vote taken by the full membership of either the House or Senate on a bill, amendment, or procedural motion. Floor votes can be voice votes, division votes, or recorded roll call votes. They represent the decisive stage where legislation is approved or rejected by a chamber.

The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to give one political party an unfair advantage. The term dates to 1812 when Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry approved a salamander-shaped district. It remains one of the most contentious issues in American electoral politics.

The practice of raising campaign funds through small donations from a large number of ordinary citizens rather than relying on wealthy donors or PACs. Modern grassroots fundraising is driven by online platforms and email campaigns. It has become a metric of perceived popular support for candidates.

Campaign contributions that are subject to federal limits and disclosure requirements. Hard money goes directly to candidates or party committees. Individual donors can give up to set limits per candidate per election cycle.

A meeting of a congressional committee where witnesses provide testimony on a specific topic, bill, or issue. Hearings are used to gather information, build the legislative record, and provide oversight of the executive branch. They may be open to the public or closed.

A legislative measure that must pass both chambers and be signed by the President, similar to a bill. Joint resolutions are often used to propose constitutional amendments, which do not require the President's signature but need two-thirds approval in each chamber. They carry the force of law.

The power of federal courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional. This power was established by the landmark 1803 Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison. It serves as a critical check on the legislative and executive branches.

A street in Washington, D.C. that has become a metonym for the American lobbying industry, much as Wall Street represents finance. Many major lobbying firms, law firms, and advocacy groups are headquartered on or near K Street. The term is often used as shorthand for the influence industry as a whole.

A period after an election but before new officials take office, during which outgoing members still hold power. Lame duck sessions of Congress occur between November elections and the new session in January. Outgoing members may pass controversial legislation because they no longer face electoral consequences.

The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995, which requires lobbyists to register with Congress and file regular reports disclosing their clients, issues lobbied on, and fees received. The LDA was strengthened in 2007 by the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act. It is the primary framework for domestic lobbying transparency.

A person who is paid to influence government officials on behalf of a client, such as a corporation, trade association, or advocacy group. Federal lobbyists must register under the Lobbying Disclosure Act and file quarterly reports. There are roughly 12,000 registered lobbyists in Washington, D.C.

A committee session where members go through a bill line by line, debating and voting on proposed amendments. Markup is when the real legislative sausage-making happens. The committee can approve, amend, or reject the bill before sending it to the full chamber.

A general election held in the middle of a presidential term, two years after the last presidential election. All 435 House seats, roughly one-third of Senate seats, and many state offices are on the ballot. The president's party historically loses seats in midterm elections.

A single piece of legislation that packages together several related or unrelated measures into one large bill. Omnibus bills are frequently used for government spending, combining multiple appropriations into a single vote. They are often criticized for their length and complexity.

A method of constitutional interpretation that seeks to apply the meaning the text had when it was originally written and ratified. Originalists argue this approach limits judicial activism and keeps judges from imposing their own policy preferences. It has been championed by justices like Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas.

The power of Congress to pass a bill into law despite a presidential veto. An override requires a two-thirds supermajority vote in both the House and the Senate. Successful overrides are rare, occurring in roughly 7% of vetoed bills throughout history.

A Political Action Committee that raises and spends money to elect or defeat candidates. PACs are limited in how much they can accept from individual donors and how much they can give directly to candidates. They must register with the Federal Election Commission and disclose their donors.

The President's constitutional power to forgive a person convicted of a federal crime, restoring their rights and eliminating punishment. Pardons cannot be granted for state crimes or impeachment. They are absolute and cannot be overturned by Congress or the courts.

An indirect veto that occurs when the President does not sign a bill within 10 days and Congress has adjourned during that period. Because Congress is not in session, the bill cannot be returned for reconsideration. Unlike a regular veto, a pocket veto cannot be overridden.

A prior court decision that serves as a guide or rule for deciding subsequent similar cases. Under the doctrine of stare decisis, courts generally follow precedent to ensure consistency and predictability. The Supreme Court can overturn its own precedent but rarely does so.

A directive from the President to executive branch agencies that is similar to an executive order but typically narrower in scope. Unlike executive orders, memoranda are not required to be published in the Federal Register, though many are. They carry the same legal authority.

An election held before the general election in which voters choose their party's candidates. Primaries can be open (any voter can participate), closed (only registered party members), or semi-closed. They are the main mechanism through which parties select nominees for office.

A metric developed by the Cook Political Report that measures how strongly a congressional district or state leans toward one party compared to the national average. A PVI of D+5 means the district votes five points more Democratic than the nation. It is widely used to assess competitiveness.

The minimum number of members who must be present for a legislative body to conduct official business. In both the House and Senate, a quorum is a simple majority of the total membership. Without a quorum, no votes can be taken.

A presidential appointment made while the Senate is in recess, bypassing the normal confirmation process. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next Senate session. They have become increasingly rare as the Senate uses pro forma sessions to prevent them.

A special budget process that allows certain tax and spending legislation to pass the Senate with a simple majority of 51 votes, bypassing the 60-vote filibuster threshold. It can only be used for bills that affect the federal budget. Major legislation like the Affordable Care Act and 2017 tax cuts used this process.

The process of redrawing congressional and state legislative district boundaries, typically after each decennial census. Redistricting ensures that districts have roughly equal populations as required by the Constitution. The process is controlled by state legislatures in most states.

A formal expression of opinion or will by one or both chambers of Congress. Simple resolutions affect only the chamber that passes them, while concurrent and joint resolutions involve both chambers. Only joint resolutions have the force of law.

The movement of personnel between roles as legislators or government officials and positions in the lobbying industry. Former members of Congress and their staffers often become lobbyists, leveraging their relationships and knowledge. Ethics rules impose cooling-off periods, but critics argue they are insufficient.

An amendment added to a bill that is often unrelated to the bill's main subject. Riders are used to pass measures that might not survive as standalone legislation by attaching them to must-pass bills. They are common on appropriations and defense authorization bills.

A vote in which each member's position is individually recorded and made public. In the House, roll call votes are conducted electronically; in the Senate, the clerk calls each senator's name. Roll call votes create a permanent record of how each member voted.

A written comment issued by the President when signing a bill into law, often indicating how the President interprets certain provisions. Signing statements can signal that the President believes parts of the law are unconstitutional and may not enforce them. Their legal weight is debated.

A measure passed by only one chamber of Congress that addresses matters entirely within that chamber's authority. Simple resolutions do not require approval by the other chamber or the President. They are used for things like setting internal rules or expressing the chamber's opinion.

Money raised outside the limits and prohibitions of federal election law, typically donated to political parties for "party-building" activities. The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain-Feingold) banned national parties from raising soft money. The concept has evolved as money shifted to other vehicles like Super PACs.

The member of Congress who introduces a bill or resolution and is its primary advocate. A bill can have only one sponsor but may have many cosponsors who formally add their names in support. Sponsorship signals political ownership of the legislation.

The legal right to bring a lawsuit, requiring that the plaintiff has suffered a concrete injury caused by the defendant that can be remedied by the court. Standing is a constitutional requirement rooted in Article III. Without it, a case will be dismissed regardless of its merits.

A judicial philosophy that interprets the Constitution and laws based on their literal, plain-text meaning. Strict constructionists believe judges should not read additional rights or powers into the text. It is closely associated with conservative legal thought.

An independent-expenditure-only committee that can raise unlimited funds from individuals, corporations, and unions. Super PACs may not donate directly to or coordinate with candidates or parties. They were made possible by the 2010 Citizens United and SpeechNow.org decisions.

A state where the outcome of a presidential election is uncertain because neither party has a reliable majority. Swing states receive disproportionate attention from campaigns in terms of advertising, visits, and resources. Examples include Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Arizona, Georgia, and Nevada.

A motion to set aside a bill, amendment, or motion, effectively killing it without a direct vote on the merits. In congressional usage, tabling a measure is a way to dispose of it quickly. A motion to table is not debatable and requires only a simple majority.

A procedure used to expedite business in the Senate by skipping time-consuming votes and debates. Any single senator can object and block a unanimous consent request. It is the grease that keeps the Senate functioning on routine matters.

The President's constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress. When vetoed, a bill is returned to Congress with the President's objections. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

A party leader in Congress responsible for counting votes and persuading members to vote along party lines. The Majority Whip and Minority Whip serve in both chambers. The term comes from the British fox-hunting phrase "whipper-in," referring to the person who keeps the hounds in line.